Object geometry serves humans' intuitive physics of stability.

How do humans judge physical stability? A prevalent account emphasizes the mental simulation of physical events implemented by an intuitive physics engine in the mind. Here we test the extent to which the perceptual features of object geometry are sufficient for supporting judgments of falling direction. In all experiments, adults and children judged the falling direction of a tilted object and, across experiments, objects differed in the geometric features (i.e., geometric centroid, object height, base size and/or aspect ratio) relevant to the judgment. Participants' performance was compared to computational models trained on geometric features, as well as a deep convolutional neural network (ResNet-50), none of which incorporated mental simulation. Adult and child participants' performance was well fit by models of object geometry, particularly the geometric centroid. ResNet-50 also provided a good account of human performance. Altogether, our findings suggest that object geometry may be sufficient for judging the falling direction of tilted objects, independent of mental simulation.

Visual looming is a primitive for human emotion.

Looming objects afford threat of collision across the animal kingdom. Defensive responses to looming and neural computations for looming detection are strikingly conserved across species. In mammals, information about rapidly approaching threats is conveyed from the retina to the midbrain superior colliculus, where variables that indicate the position and velocity of approach are computed to enable defensive behavior. Although neuroscientific theories posit that midbrain representations contribute to emotion through connectivity with distributed brain systems, it remains unknown whether a computational system for looming detection can predict both defensive behavior and phenomenal experience in humans. Here, we show that a shallow convolutional neural network based on the Drosophila visual system predicts defensive blinking to looming objects in infants and superior colliculus responses to optical expansion in adults. Further, the responses of the convolutional network to a broad array of naturalistic video clips predict self-reported emotion largely on the basis of subjective arousal. Our findings illustrate how motor and experiential components of human emotion relate to species-general systems for survival in unpredictable environments.

Electrophysiological Comparison of Cumulative Area and Non-Symbolic Number Judgments.

Despite the importance of representing different magnitudes (i.e., number and cumulative area) for action planning and formal mathematics, there is much debate about the nature of these representations, particularly the extent to which magnitudes interact in the mind and brain. Early interaction views suggest that there are shared perceptual processes that form overlapping magnitude representations. However, late interaction views hold that representations of different magnitudes remain distinct, interacting only when preparing a motor response. The present study sheds light on this debate by examining the temporal onset of ratio and congruity effects as participants made ordinal judgments about number and cumulative area. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded to identify whether the onset of such effects aligned with early versus late views. Ratio effects for both magnitudes were observed starting in the P100. Moreover, a congruity effect emerged within the P100. That interactions were observed early in processing, at the same time that initial ratio effects occurred, suggests that number and cumulative area processes interacted when magnitude representations were being formed, prior to preparing a decision response. Our findings are consistent with an early interaction view of magnitude processing, in which number and cumulative area may rely on shared perceptual mechanisms.

Visual adaptation reveals multichannel coding for numerosity.

Visual numerosity is represented automatically and rapidly, but much remains unknown about the computations underlying this perceptual experience. For example, it is unclear whether numerosity is represented with an opponent channel or multichannel coding system. Within an opponent channel system, all numerical values are represented via the relative activity of two pools of neurons (i.e., one pool with a preference for small numerical values and one pool with a preference for large numerical values). However, within a multichannel coding system, all numerical values are represented directly, with separate pools of neurons for each (discriminable) numerical value. Using an adaptation paradigm, we assessed whether the visual perception of number is better characterized by an opponent channel or multichannel system. Critically, these systems make distinct predictions regarding the pattern of aftereffects exhibited when an observer is adapted to an intermediate numerical value. Opponent channel coding predicts no aftereffects because both pools of neurons adapt equally. By contrast, multichannel coding predicts repulsive aftereffects, wherein numerical values smaller than the adapter are underestimated and those larger than the adapter are overestimated. Consistent with multichannel coding, visual adaptation to an intermediate value (50 dots) yielded repulsive aftereffects, such that participants underestimated stimuli ranging from 10-50 dots, but overestimated stimuli ranging from 50-250 dots. These findings provide novel evidence that the visual perception of number is supported by a multichannel, not opponent channel, coding system, and raise important questions regarding the contributions of different cortical regions, such as the ventral and lateral intraparietal areas, to the representation of number.

No intrinsic number bias: Evaluating the role of perceptual discriminability in magnitude categorization.

Accumulating evidence suggests that there is a spontaneous preference for numerical, compared to non-numerical (e.g., cumulative surface area), information. However, given a paucity of research on the perception of non-numerical magnitudes, it is unclear whether this preference reflects a specific bias towards number, or a general bias towards the more perceptually discriminable dimension (i.e., number). Here, we found that when the number and area of visual dot displays were matched in mathematical ratio, number was more perceptually discriminable than area in both adults and children. Moreover, both adults and children preferentially categorized these ratio-matched stimuli based on number, consistent with previous work. However, when number and area were matched in perceptual discriminability, a different pattern of results emerged. In particular, children preferentially categorized stimuli based on area, suggesting that children's previously observed number bias may be due to a mismatch in the perceptual discriminability of number and area, not an intrinsic salience of number. Interestingly, adults continued to categorize the displays on the basis of number. Altogether, these findings suggest a dominant role for area during childhood, refuting the claim that number is inherently and uniquely salient. Yet they also reveal an increased salience of number that emerges over development. Potential explanations for this developmental shift are discussed. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Previous work found that children and adults spontaneously categorized dot array stimuli by number, over other magnitudes (e.g., area), suggesting number is uniquely salient. However, here we found that when number and area were matched by ratio, as in prior work, number was significantly more perceptually discriminable than area. When number and area were made equally discriminable ('perceptually-matched'), children, contra adults, spontaneously categorized stimuli by area over number (and other non-numerical magnitudes). These findings suggest that area may be uniquely salient early in childhood, with the previously-observed number bias not emerging until later in development.

A theory of perceptual number encoding.

There has long been interest in how the mind represents numerical magnitude, particularly in the absence of symbols. For humans and nonhuman animals, number represents a core dimension of perceptual experience by which objects in the physical world are delineated. The physical world is also well characterized by other dimensions, many of which covary with number. Yet, the general consensus is that number is perceived independently of other magnitudes that co-occur with it. Here, we present evidence against the independence of number perception. In particular, we use evidence from neuroimaging, computational modeling, visual illusions, and psychophysics to introduce a novel theory of visual number encoding, wherein nonnumerical magnitude information such as cumulative surface area is encoded along with number and sustained throughout visual perception. Moreover, we propose that the experience of number per se reflects the readout of a multidimensional (i.e., integral) representation vis-à-vis selective attention, not the independent encoding of number. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Perception of an object's global shape is best described by a model of skeletal structure in human infants.

Categorization of everyday objects requires that humans form representations of shape that are tolerant to variations among exemplars. Yet, how such invariant shape representations develop remains poorly understood. By comparing human infants (6-12 months; N=82) to computational models of vision using comparable procedures, we shed light on the origins and mechanisms underlying object perception. Following habituation to a never-before-seen object, infants classified other novel objects across variations in their component parts. Comparisons to several computational models of vision, including models of high-level and low-level vision, revealed that infants' performance was best described by a model of shape based on the skeletal structure. Interestingly, infants outperformed a range of artificial neural network models, selected for their massive object experience and biological plausibility, under the same conditions. Altogether, these findings suggest that robust representations of shape can be formed with little language or object experience by relying on the perceptually invariant skeletal structure.

Skeletal representations of shape in the human visual cortex.

Shape perception is crucial for object recognition. However, it remains unknown exactly how shape information is represented and used by the visual system. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the visual system represents object shape via a skeletal structure. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and representational similarity analysis (RSA), we found that a model of skeletal similarity explained significant unique variance in the response profiles of V3 and LO. Moreover, the skeletal model remained predictive in these regions even when controlling for other models of visual similarity that approximate low-to high-level visual features (i.e., Gabor-jet, GIST, HMAX, and AlexNet), and across different surface forms, a manipulation that altered object contours while preserving the underlying skeleton. Together, these findings shed light on shape processing in human vision, as well as the computational properties of V3 and LO. We discuss how these regions may support two putative roles of shape skeletons: namely, perceptual organization and object recognition.

Perceived number is not abstract.

To support the claim that the approximate number system (ANS) represents rational numbers, Clarke and Beck (C&B) argue that number perception is abstract and characterized by a second-order character. However, converging evidence from visual illusions and psychophysics suggests that perceived number is not abstract, but rather, is perceptually interdependent with other magnitudes. Moreover, number, as a concept, is second-order, but number, as a percept, is not.

Sixty years of gender representation in children's books: Conditions associated with overrepresentation of male versus female protagonists.

As a reflection of prominent cultural norms, children's literature plays an integral role in the acquisition and development of societal attitudes. Previous reports of male overrepresentation in books targeted towards children are consistent with a history of gender disparity across media and society. However, it is unknown whether such bias has been attenuated in recent years with increasing emphasis on gender equity and greater accessibility of books. Here, we provide an up-to-date estimate of the relative proportion of males and females featured as single protagonists in 3,280 children's books (0-16 years) published between 1960-2020. We find that although the proportion of female protagonists has increased over this 60-year period, male protagonists remain overrepresented even in recent years. Importantly, we also find persistent effects related to author gender, age of the target audience, character type (human vs. non-human), and book genre (fiction vs. non-fiction) on the male-to-female ratio of protagonists. We suggest that this comprehensive account of the factors influencing the rates of appearance of male and female protagonists can be leveraged to develop specific recommendations for promoting more equitable gender representation in children's literature, with important consequences for child development and society.

Visual perception of apparent motion abides by minimization principles of geometry.

Apparent motion is a robust perceptual phenomenon in which observers perceive a stimulus traversing the vacant visual space between two flashed stimuli. Although it is known that the "filling-in" of apparent motion favors the simplest and most economical path, the interpolative computations remain poorly understood. Here, we tested whether the perception of apparent motion is best characterized by Newtonian physics or kinematic geometry. Participants completed a target detection task while Pacmen-shaped objects were presented in succession to create the perception of apparent motion. We found that target detection was impaired when apparent motion, as predicted by kinematic geometry, not Newtonian physics, obstructed the target's location. Our findings shed light on the computations employed by the visual system, suggesting specifically that the "filling-in" perception of apparent motion may be dominated by kinematic geometry, not Newtonian physics. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Measurement of Cognition for the National Children's Study.

The National Children's Study Cognitive Health Domain Team developed detailed plans for assessing cognition longitudinally from infancy to early adulthood. These plans identify high-priority aspects of cognition that can be measured efficiently and effectively, and we believe they can serve as a model for future large-scale longitudinal research. For infancy and toddlerhood, we proposed several paradigms that collectively allowed us to assess six broad cognitive constructs: (1) executive function skills, (2) episodic memory, (3) language, (4) processing speed, (5) spatial and numerical processing, and (6) social cognition. In some cases, different trial sequences within a paradigm allow for the simultaneous assessment of multiple cognitive skills (e.g., executive function skills and processing speed). We define each construct, summarize its significance for understanding developmental outcomes, discuss the feasibility of its assessment throughout development, and present our plan for measuring specific skills at different ages. Given the need for well-validated, direct behavioral measures of cognition that can be used in large-scale longitudinal studies, especially from birth to age 3 years, we also initiated three projects focused on the development of new measures.

Spatial-numerical associations from a novel paradigm support the mental number line account.

Multiple tasks have been used to demonstrate the relation between numbers and space. The classic interpretation of these directional spatial-numerical associations (d-SNAs) is that they are the product of a mental number line (MNL), in which numerical magnitude is intrinsically associated with spatial position. The alternative account is that d-SNAs reflect task demands, such as explicit numerical judgements and/or categorical responses. In the novel "Where was The Number?" task, no explicit numerical judgements were made. Participants were simply required to reproduce the location of a numeral within a rectangular space. Using a between-subject design, we found that numbers, but not letters, biased participants' responses along the horizontal dimension, such that larger numbers were placed more rightward than smaller numbers, even when participants completed a concurrent verbal working memory task. These findings are consistent with the MNL account, such that numbers specifically are inherently left-to-right oriented in Western participants.

The relative salience of numerical and non-numerical dimensions shifts over development: A re-analysis of.

Visual displays of objects include information about number and other magnitudes such as cumulative surface area. Despite the confluence of cues, a prevalent view is that number is uniquely salient within multidimensional stimuli. Consistent with this view, Tomlinson et al. (2020) report that, in addition to greater acuity for number than area among both children and adults, number biases area judgments more than the reverse, at least in childhood. However, a failure to consider perceived area, undermines these results. To address this concern, we used an index of perceived area when assessing acuity and bias of number and area. In this context, number and area were comparable in acuity among children and adults. Bias, however, differed across development. Although adults showed greater bias of number on area judgments than the reverse, children experienced greater area bias on number judgments. Thus, contra Tomlinson et al., when differences in mathematical and perceived area are accounted for, area is more salient than number early in development. However, number does become the more salient dimension by adulthood, suggesting a role for experience with symbolic number and education in directing attention towards number within multidimensional visual stimuli.

The Future of Women in Psychological Science.

There has been extensive discussion about gender gaps in representation and career advancement in the sciences. However, psychological science itself has yet to be the focus of discussion or systematic review, despite our field's investment in questions of equity, status, well-being, gender bias, and gender disparities. In the present article, we consider 10 topics relevant for women's career advancement in psychological science. We focus on issues that have been the subject of empirical study, discuss relevant evidence within and outside of psychological science, and draw on established psychological theory and social-science research to begin to chart a path forward. We hope that better understanding of these issues within the field will shed light on areas of existing gender gaps in the discipline and areas where positive change has happened, and spark conversation within our field about how to create lasting change to mitigate remaining gender differences in psychological science.

Numerosity and cumulative surface area are perceived holistically as integral dimensions.

Human and nonhuman animals have a remarkable capacity to rapidly estimate the quantity of objects in the environment. The dominant view of this ability posits an abstract numerosity code, uncontaminated by nonnumerical visual information. The present study provides novel evidence in contradiction to this view by demonstrating that number and cumulative surface area are perceived holistically, classically known as integral dimensions. Whether assessed explicitly (Experiment 1) or implicitly (Experiment 2), perceived similarity for dot arrays that varied parametrically in number and cumulative area was best modeled by Euclidean, as opposed to city-block, distance within the stimulus space, comparable to other integral dimensions (brightness/saturation and radial frequency components) but different from separable dimensions (shape/color and brightness/size). Moreover, Euclidean distance remained the best-performing model, even when compared to models that controlled for other magnitude properties (e.g., density) or image similarity. These findings suggest that numerosity perception entails the obligatory processing of nonnumerical magnitude. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

No Participant Left Behind: Conducting Science During COVID-19.

Cognitive scientists have ramped up online testing in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Although research conducted online solves the problem of data collection, the paucity of internet access among low-income and minority communities may reduce the diversity of study samples, and thus have an impact on the generalizability of scientific findings.

Does training mental rotation transfer to gains in mathematical competence? Assessment of an at-home visuospatial intervention.

The current study examined whether the effect of spatial training transfers to the math domain. Sixty-two 6- and 7-year-olds completed an at-home 1-week online training intervention. The spatial-training group received mental rotation training, whereas the active control group received literacy training in a format that matched the spatial training. Results revealed near transfer of mental rotation ability in the spatial-training group. More importantly, there was also far transfer to canonical arithmetic problems, such that children in the spatial-training group performed better on these math problems than children in the control group. Such far transfer could not be attributed to general cognitive improvement, since no improvement was observed for non-symbolic quantity processing, verbal working memory (WM), or language ability following spatial training. Spatial training may have benefitted symbolic arithmetic performance by improving visualization ability, access to the mental number line, and/or increasing the capacity of visuospatial WM.

Canine sense of quantity: evidence for numerical ratio-dependent activation in parietotemporal cortex.

The approximate number system (ANS), which supports the rapid estimation of quantity, emerges early in human development and is widespread across species. Neural evidence from both human and non-human primates suggests the parietal cortex as a primary locus of numerical estimation, but it is unclear whether the numerical competencies observed across non-primate species are subserved by similar neural mechanisms. Moreover, because studies with non-human animals typically involve extensive training, little is known about the spontaneous numerical capacities of non-human animals. To address these questions, we examined the neural underpinnings of number perception using awake canine functional magnetic resonance imaging. Dogs passively viewed dot arrays that varied in ratio and, critically, received no task-relevant training or exposure prior to testing. We found evidence of ratio-dependent activation, which is a key feature of the ANS, in canine parietotemporal cortex in the majority of dogs tested. This finding is suggestive of a neural mechanism for quantity perception that has been conserved across mammalian evolution.

Evaluating Child Toothbrushing Behavior Changes Associated with a Mobile Game App: A Single Arm Pre/Post Pilot Study.

Purpose: The purpose of this pilot study was to evaluate changes in toothbrushing behaviors associated with a mobile game app. Methods: Thirty-four five- to six-year-olds were taught to use the Brush UpTM game app and played it once per day at home for seven days. The primary outcome was toothbrushing quality measured as duration and distribution. The paired t test was used to assess pre/post changes and Holm's method adjusted for multiple testing (α equals 0.05). Results: The mean age was 73.7±6.6 months; 29.4 percent were female, and 47.1 percent were Caucasian. After seven days, toothbrushing duration increased significantly (P<0.001). Toothbrushing distribution improved with increased brushing of the lingual, maxillary occlusal, and posterior buccal surfaces. For 15 children who played the game for 14 days, even greater improvements in quality and distribution were observed. Improvements in toothbrushing did not persist one year later without further app use but there were noted changes that could be clinically meaningful. Conclusions: Mobile health game apps can potentially improve toothbrushing quality in children. Additional trials are needed to assess mobile toothbrushing game apps.